Historically，Confucius was primarily a teacher. But soon after his death，in the fourth and the third century B. C. ，gradually he was considered the Teacher. In the second century B. C. he was considered as more than the Teacher. According to many Confucianists of that time，Confucius was actually appointed by Heaven to start a new dynasty to succeed that of Chou. Ideally，though without a crown he was a King；ideally though without a government，he ruled the empire. How he did it，the Spring and Autumn Annals could tell. In the first century B. C. he was considered as more than a King. According to many people of that time，Confucius was a god among men. He knew that after him there would be the Han dynasty，so he prepared everything for this new dynasty to come. In the Spring and Autumn Annals he set forth a political ideal complete enough for the Han dynasty to realize. That was the climax of Confucius' glory，and at that time Confucianism could be genuinely called a religion.
But that time did not last very long. Confucianists of the more rationalistic type soon got the upper hand. After the first century A. D. ，Confucius was again considered as the Teacher. Only at the end of the nineteenth century，a little over three decades ago，the theory that Confucius was actually appointed by Heaven to be a King revived for some time. But soon after，he was considered less than that，and even less than the Teacher. At present we say that historically he was primarily a teacher.
The theories that Confucius was actually appointed by Heaven to be a King and that he was a god among men are obviously without foundation. They are simply the exaggerated form of the theory that Confucius was the Teacher. No student of history at present will take the trouble to consider whether they are true or false. But the theory that Confucius was the Teacher was actually held by most people through almost twenty centuries. Were these people utterly wrong，if historically Confucius was primarily a teacher？In one respect，yes；in another，no. In the following，we will consider in what respect they were wrong，and in what respect they were right.
Those who held that Confucius was ideally a King insisted that he was the author of all the six classics. Those who held that Confucius was a god among men were of the same opinion. Those who held that Confucius was the Teacher took a view more moderate. They said that Confucius was the author of the Spring and Autumn Annals，the commentator of the Book of Changes，and the editor of the rest. Although there was a difference of opinion among these Confucianists，they all attached the importance of Confucius to his connection with the six classics. According to them it was his contribution to the classics that made Confucius what he was.
But as a matter of fact，Confucius was neither the author，nor the commentator，nor even the editor of any of the six classics. In the Analects of Confucius，the disciples of Confucius reported his sayings and even the details of his mode of living. But nothing is said therein regarding his authorship，or commentatorship，or even editorship. In one respect，Confucius was a conservative. He upheld traditions. In ceremony and music，he tried to rectify any deviation from the traditional practice or standard. These his disciples told us in the Analects. But judging from their reports，Confucius had neither the deed，nor even the idea，of writing something to teach all generations to come. More than one century later，after the death of Confucius，Mencius began to make the report that Confucius was the author of the Spring and Autumn Annals，and the report that confucius was the commentator of the Book of Changes came out still later. It is incredible that Mencius and those later than Mencius could know more about Confucius than his contemporaries did.
Thus in the light of modern scholarship，Confucius should be deprived of almost all the important works that tradition attributed to him. The Analects alone is left for him，but that is not of his ownwriting. In the Analects，we can see him as a man interested in political and social affairs，and in knowledge in general，“tireless in practising virtue，tireless in teaching others，”(1)as he said of himself. In the Analects we can also learn his thought. But in comparison with the later thinkers，his thought was simple and undeveloped. Thus in this respect those who held that Confucius was the Teacher were obviously wrong.
But it is not without reason for most people to think that Confucius did have close relation with the six classics. Although he was neither the author，nor the commentator，nor even the editor of any of the classics，he did teach his disciples with them. To teach with the classics，Confucius was not the first man. The Kuo Yü tells us that in the sixth century B. C. King Chuang of Chu made Hsi Wei the tutor of his heir apparent. Having received this appointment，Hsi Wei asked Shen Shu Shih for advice；the latter suggested for him the subjects to be taught including several of the six classics. (2) In the Tso Chuan and Kuo Yü，we see that gentlemen of that time，in their conversations，often quoted the Book of Poetry and the Book of History. They practised ceremony in their intercourse and applied the Book of Changes in their divination. This shows that in that time at least one part of the education of the aristocrats was to learn these classics. But though Confucius was not the first man to teach with the classics，he was the first man to teach any man with them. This point we will explain later.
At present let us point out that in his method and aim of teaching，Confucius was different from the other Masters that came after him. The other Masters，Mo Tzu or Chuang Tzu，for instance，all were exponents of their own thought. But Confucius was primarily an educator. He wanted his disciples to be“round men”useful to state and society，but not as followers of a certain school. So he taught his disciples different branches of knowledge，and took the different classics as the subjects of his teaching. He thought that his function was to interpret the classics to his disciples. Therefore he said that he was a transmitter but not an originator. (3)After Confucius the Confucianists followed his example and continued to teach the classics. At the same time most of the other Masters all gave up this sort of old stuff and taught only their own new ideas. Under this contrast，it seemed that the classics belonged only to the Confucian school，but as a matter of fact，they were really the common property of that time.
Thus Confucius was primarily a teacher of classics. As we just said，to teach with the classics Confucius was not the first man，but he was the first to teach any man with the classics. In this respect，Confucius was no longer a conservative. In this respect his work was revolutionary. In the following we want to make clear four points：
（1） In China Confucius was the first man to popularize learning，the first professional educationist. He was the founder，or at least one of the founders，of the class of scholars，which afterwards became the leading class of the four classes （the scholars，the farmers，the craftsmen，and the merchants）.
（2）Confucius was the beginner，or at least one of the beginners，who tried to rationalize traditional institutions and ideas.
（3）Confucius was much like the Greek sophists.
（4）Confucius' place and influence in Chinese history was much like that of Socrates in Western history.
In the above we have seen that in the Kuo Yü an indication is given of how the Prince of Chu was to be educated. But in that time，not everybody could be educated in that way. In the Chou dynasty，the political and social organization was an aristocracy. Power and learning were concentrated in the hands of aristocrats. Common people were their slaves or serfs. They worked for the aristocrats，their masters，in time of peace，and fought for them in time of war. They had no chance either for power or for learning. Besides，as there were no printed books，the diffusion of learning was much limited. The State of Lu was the state of Grand Duke Chou，the brother of King Wu，the founder of the Chou civilization. So among the different states，Lu was often considered as the centre of learning. Han Hsüan Tzu，the Prime Minister of the State of Chin，had no chance to see the Book of Changes and the Spring and Autumn Annals until he went to Lu on diplomatic service. (4) Chi Cha，brother of the Prince of the State of Wu，was also for the first time to listen to the songs and the music of the different states when he was in Lu. (5) So it was difficult even for an aristocrat to have complete education，if he was not fortunate enough.
Confucius was a native of Lu and his family was of aristocratic origin. He was in a position fortunate enough to learn everything that man could learn at that time. Then he popularized what he learned. He taught any one who wanted to learn，no matter what sort of person one was. (6) He said himself that he would teach any body who paid him something for tuition.(7) Thus he let the door open;every one could come in to learn what one formerly had never the chance to learn. What an emancipation！
Followed by his disciples，Confucius travelled through the dif-ferent states. Wherever he went，he discussed political and social problems with the authorities. His living was supported by his disciples and the princes. Thus he was not only a teacher；he was also a politician. In this respect，his action was again revolutionary. Formerly，to govern was the profession of the aristocrats. Only the aristocrats，who actually governed，had anything to do with politics. The common people were either farmers，or craftsmen，or merchants. With politics they had nothing to do. As Confucius said：“When the world was in good order，the common people would not talk about politics.”(8) There were no such men who were not aristocrats，but always talked about politics，who were common people，but were neither farmer，nor craftsman，nor merchant. But Confucius began to be such a man. In his later years，he took teaching disciples and discussing political problems as his profession. He would not do other work. He condemned his disciples who wished to do other work. Thus one of his disciples，Fan Ch'ih，wished to learn the arts of husbandry and gardening；upon this Confucius said：“A small man is Fan Ch'ih！”(9)Tzu Kung，another disciple of Confucius，was a businessman. Speaking of him，Confucius said：“Tz'u does not acquiesce in the appointments of Heaven，but tries to increase his goods.”(10) Therefore，one of the hermits at that time condemned Confucius as“having four limbs unaccostomed to toil and being unable to distinguish the five kinds of grain.”(11) The Taoists also condemned him. In one chapter of the Chuang-tzu，it was reported that Robber Chih blamed Confucius as the man“who consumes where he does not sow and wears clothe she does not weave.”And in his quarrel with Confucius，the Robber said：“You are the biggest thief I know of，and if the world calls me Robber Chih，it most certainly ought to call you Robber Ch'iu.”(12) These were the possible criticisms of that time against Confucius.
At the time of Mencius，there were other Masters，who，besides expounding their new ideas，had other professions to make their living. Thus speaking of Hsü Hsing，Mencius said：“His disciples，amounting to several tens，all wore clothes of haircloth，and made sandals of hemp and wove mats for a living.”(13)Speaking of Chen Chung Tzu，K'uang Chang，one the disciples of Mencius，said：“ He himself weaves sandals of hemp，and his wife twists hempen threads to barter food.”(14)These Masters were living in accordance with ancient custom. But Mencius was at rue follower of Confucius. His mode of living was questioned even by his own disciples. Thus P'eng Keng asked Mencius，saying：“Is it not extravagant to go from one prince to another and live upon them，followed by several tens of carriage，and attended by several hundred men？”(15)After Confucius most Confucianists and others lived in this way. And soon the class of scholars emerged. Those who belonged to this class could do only two things：be a politician or a school teacher. This remained substantially unchanged until the present time. At present，the Chinese college graduates，no matter what they are specialized in，can do no more than these two things；and they are not expected by their old-type family to do anything more.
We said above that Confucius was a conservative. He upheld traditional institutions and ideas. Therefore in teaching his disciples he emphasized ancient learning. In this respect，he was a transmitter. But in transmitting the traditional institutions and ideas，he gave them new interpretations and read into them new meanings. Thus speaking of the institution of three years' mourning in case of the death of one's parents，Confucius said，“The child cannot leave the arms of its parents，until it is three years old. The three years' mourning，therefore，is universally observed throughout the world.”(16)Because the son needs the parents at least in the first three years of his life，so upon the death of his parents，he mourns for the same length of time to express his gratitude. That was the theoretical justification that Confucius gave to that institution. In teaching the classics Confucius often gave them new interpretations also. Thus in speaking of the Book of Poetry，Confucius said：“In the Book of Poetry there are three hundred poems. But the essence of them can be expressed in one sentence：‘Have no depraved ideas.’”(17) In this respect Confucius was not a transmitter only. In transmitting，he originated something new. To the above quotations，we see that his interpretations were rather crude and certainly brief. But this spirit of originating in transmitting was carried on by the later Confucianists. The commentaries to，and the interpretations of，the texts of the classics accumulated as the texts were handed down from one generation to another. A great part of what were called later the thirteen classics were the commentaries to the original texts. It is this part that has influenced later generations the most. Thus there is reason to say that Confucius was the author of all the classics，if by this we mean that Confucius was the man who started the whole Confucianist movement along this line.
Confucius was much like the Greek sophists. They broke the ancient custom and formally took those who wanted to be educated to be their disciples. A new human relation，the relation between teacher and disciple，was thus established. The sophists collected tuition fees to make their living. This the conservatives of that time condemned as selling knowledge. Confucius also expected his disciples to pay something for tuition，though not necessarily in the form of money. We say therefore that in China Confucius was the first professional educationist.
There is another point in which Confucius was much like the sophists. The sophists were all very learned，and versed in differentbranches of knowledge. So they could teach any subject that their disciples might wish to learn. Confucius was also famous for his extensive knowledge. Therefore，one of his contemporaries said：“Great is the Master Kung！His learning is extensive，and thus cannot be called by one name.”(18)Another said：“May we not say that the Master is a sage？How various are his skills！”(19) This no doubt was one of the reasons that Confucius could gather around him many disciples.
Confucius was much like Socrates. In fact Socrates was also a sophist. The difference between them was that Socrates did not collect tuition fees from his disciples；he did not sell knowledge. He had no interest in ontological and cosmological problems. He believed in the existence of the gods；and in this respect he was a conservative. Confucius also had interest only in human affairs. He also believed in the existence of an intelligent Heaven，so far as we can see in the Analects. Socrates thought that he was appointed by a divine order to awake the Greeks. Confucius had the same consciousness. When he was in trouble at the place of K'uang，he said：“If Heaven had wished to let civilization perish，the future generations will be without it. If Heaven does not wish to let civilization perish，what can the people of K'uang do to me？”(20) One of his contemporaries also said：“The world has long been without order；Heaven is going to use the Master as a bell with its wooden tongue.”(21) Socrates searched for definition with the method of induction，as Aristotle said，and made the definition of virtues as the standard of human conduct. Confucius，influenced by the Spring and Autumn Annals，also taught the doctrine of the rectification of names. He wanted all the individual fathers in the society to behave according to the name，the definition，of father，and all the individual sons according to that of son. He thought that if this could be done，the world would be in peace.(22) Socrates，in educating his disciples，emphasized their moral character. In educating his disciples，Confucius also valued their virtue much more than their ability of conducting public affairs. Thus，speaking of the ability of his disciples，Confucius said：“In a kingdom of one thousand chariots，Yu is able to manage the military levies，but I do not know whether he is perfectly virtuous. In a city of one thousand families，or a house of one hundred chariots，Ch'iu is able to be a governor，but I do not know whether he is perfectly virtuous. With his sash girt and standing in the court，Ch'ih is able to converse with the visitors and guests，but I do not know whether he is perfectly virtuous.”(23) How difficult and how desirable it is to be perfectly virtuous！
Socrates himself wrote nothing，but later many sayings were put in his mouth. Confucius also wrote nothing，but later many writings were attributed to him. After the death of Socrates，his spirit and teaching were substantiated and developed by Plato and Aristotle，and thus became the fountain of the main current of Western thought. In the same way，the spirit and the teaching of Confucius were substantiated and developed by Mencius and Hsün Tzu，and thus became the fountain of the main current of Chinese thought. Thus Confucius was a Chinese Socrates. He was more than a Chinese Socrates，because he was also the first man who popularized learning，and because he was also the founder，or at least one of the founders，of the scholar class.
Therefore，in Chinese history though historically Confucius was primarily a teacher，yet it is not without reason to consider him as the Teacher.
Reprinted from The Chinese Social and Political Science Review，16-1，April，1932
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(1) “Shu Erh，”Analects.
(2) “Chu Yü，”Discussions of the States （Kuo Yu）.
(3) “Shu Erh，”Analects.
(4) “The Second Year of Duke Chao，”Tso Chuan.
(5) “The Twenty-ninth Year of Duke Hsiang，”Tso Chuan.
(6) “Wei Lin Kung，”Analects.
(7) “Shu Erh，”Analects.
(8) “Chi Shih.”Analects.
(9) “Tzu Lu，”Analects.
(10) “Hsien Chin，”Analects.
(11) “Wei Tzu，”Analects.
(12) “Robber Chih，”Chuang-tzu.
(13) “T'eng Wen Kung，Section I，”Mencius.
(14) “T'eng Wen Kung，Section II，”Mencius.
(15) Ibid.
(16) “Yang Huo，”Analects.
(17) “Wei Cheng，”Analects.
(18) “Tzu Han，”Analects.
(19) Ibid.
(20) “Tzu Han，” Analects.
(21) “Pa Yi，”Anadects.
(22) “Yen Yüan，”Analects.
(23) “Kung Yeh Ch'ang，”Analects.