Confucius said that he was a transmitter but not an originator.(1) He thought that in his teaching there was nothing new. It is true that Confucius taught much to uphold the traditions of his time. His time was one when，with the decay of feudalism，the traditional institutions and ideas were falling to pieces. Confucius tried his best to uphold them. But in doing this，he gave them new interpretations and read into them new ideas. He was not simply transmitting；in transmitting he originated something new.
This spirit of originating in transmitting was carried on by the later Confucianists. For instance，the mourning，sacrificial and wedding rites as mentioned in the Yi Li were not the inventions of the Confucianists. They were the current practice of the time；they were not without superstition and mythology. But in upholding or transmitting these rites，the Confucianists gave them new interpretations and read into them new ideas. These interpretations and ideas we find in the Works of Hsün Tzu and the Li Chi. The meaning and significance of them we are going at present to discuss.
（I）
Our mind has two aspects，the intellectual and the emotional. When our beloved ones die，through our intellect，we know that the dead is dead and that there is no rational ground for our believing in the immortality of soul. If we act solely under the direction of our intellect，we need no mourning rite. In the Mo-tzu one passage reads：
Kung Mung Tzu said：“The three years' mourning is an expression of our infantile feeling，which is the endless longing for the parents.”Master Mo Tzu said：“The child has no other knowledge besides the longing for parents. Therefore when the parents are absent，it continues to cry. The cause of this fact is its extreme ignorance. The Confucianists are not even wiser than a child.”(2)
From the point of view of intellect，the whole mourning rite is meaningless，a sort of childish nonsense. The cause of its existence is man's “extreme ignorance.”
But since our mind has also its emotional aspect，when our beloved ones die，we hope that the dead might live again，and that there might be a soul that continues to exist in the other world. If we thus give way to our fancy，we can take superstition as truth，and deny the judgment of our intellect. Religions in the world are thus produced.
Thus there is a difference between what we know and what we hope. Knowledge is important，but we cannot live with knowledge only. We need emotional satisfaction as well. In determining our attitude towards the dead we have to take both into consideration. According to the Confucianists，the mourning and sacrificial rites，as they upheld them，did take both into consideration. As we said，these rites were not without superstition and mythology. Rev. Henri Doré's work“Researches into Chinese Superstitions”had several chapters dealing with mourning，sacrificial and wedding rites. These rites as described in Rev. Doré's work were not exactly the same as that prescribed in the Yi Li. In both of them superstitions certainly there were. They were religious in a certain sense. But so far as the rites prescribed in the Yi Li were concerned，with the interpretations of the Confucianists，superstition and mythology were purged：the religious element in them was transformed into poetry；they were no longer religious，but simply poetic.
Religion and poetry are both the expression of the fancy of man. They both mingle imagination with reality. The difference between them is that religion takes what itself says as true，while poetry takes what itself says as false. What poetry presents is not reality，and it knows that it is not. Therefore，it deceives itself yet without being deceived. It is very unscientific，yet it does not contradict science. In poetry we get emotional satisfaction without obstructing the progress of intellect.
According to the Confucianists，in the mourning and sacrificial rites，people are deceiving themselves without being deceived. As one passage in the Li Chi reads：
Confucius said：“In dealing with the dead，if we treat them as if they were really dead，that would mean a want of affection，and should not be done;or，if we treat them as if they were really alive，that would mean a want of wisdom，and should not be done. On this account the vessels of bamboo （used in connexion with the burial of the dead）are not fit for actual use. ...They are called vessels to the eye of fancy；that is，the dead are thus treated as if they were spiritual intelligences.”(3)
Another passage reads：
Confucius said：“He who made the vessels （used in connexion with the burial of the dead）which are so only in imagination，knew the principles underlying the mourning rites. They were complete in all appearance，and yet could not be used.”(4)
If we treat the dead as really dead，as we know，we show a want of affection. If we treat the dead as really alive，as we hope，we show a want of wisdom. The middle way it is to treat the dead as if they were living. We prepare for them vessels which are“complete in all appearance，but could not be used.”We prepare vessels for them，because we hope the dead might still be able to use them. Yet the vessels are not made for use，because we know that the dead can no longer use anything. The Confucianist theory of mourning and sacrificial rites emphasizes the emotional satisfaction that these rites can give to man，because，as we know，the dead are gone forever and there is nothing which can be said concerning their objective existence. Thus one passage in the Li Chi reads：
The rite of mourning is the expression of man's extreme grief and sorrow. It also regulates man's grief and sorrow and adjusts him to the unfortunate circumstances. In this rite the superior man is mindful of those to whom he owes his being. ...In the mourning and sacrificial rites，one who practises them simply completes his own devotion. How can he know whether there are spirits that will accept his offerings？He is guided only by his pure and reverent heart.(5)
In mourning and sacrificial rites，people simply want to complete their own devotion. They treat the dead as if they were living. They deceive themselves without being deceived. To the details of the mourning rite these different chapters in the Li Chi also give interpretations. But it is beyond our present scope to discuss them.
In Hsün Tzu's “Treatise on Rites”，the meaning and significance of mourning rite were also fully discussed. Hsün Tzu said：
Rite is careful about the treatment of man's life and death. Life is the beginning of man;death is his end. If the beginning and the end of man are both well treated，human conduct is complete. The superior man，therefore，is serious at the beginning and cautious at the end. He is careful from the beginning to the end. This is the way of the superior man，the way of morality. If we render adequate service to our parents when they are living but not when they are dead，that means that we respect our parents when they have knowledge，but neglect them when they have not. One's death means that one is gone forever. That is the last chance for a minister to serve his sovereign，and a son his parents. The mourning rite is decorate the dead by the living，to send off the dead as if they were still living，to render the same service to the dead as that to the living，a service uniform from beginning to the end. ...Therefore the function of the mourning rite is nothing but to make clear the meaning of life and death，to send off the dead with sorrow and respect and thus to complete the end of a man. ...(6)
Seeing mourning rite from this light，the Confucianists considered it as having a psychological basis. Thus one passage in the Li Chi reads：
It does not come down from heaven；it does not come forth from the earth. It is simply the expression of human feelings.(7)
（II）
According to the Confucianists，the sacrificial rite is also the expression of human feeling. One passage in the Li Chi reads：
Of all the methods for governing men，rite is the most urgent. Of the five kinds of rite，the sacrificial is the most important. Sacrifice is not a thing coming to a man from without；it issues from within and has its birth in his heart. When the heart is deeply moved，it expresses itself in the rites. This idea of sacrifice，only the man of virtue knows completely. The sacrifice of such men has its blessing；— not indeed what the world calls blessing. Blessing here means perfection，which means the complete discharge of all duties. ... Hence in the sacrifice of such a man he brings into exercise all sincerity and good faith，with loyalty and reverence. He offers his sacrifice，without seeking for anything beyond. Such is the heart and mind of a filial son.(8)
In his “Treatise on Rites”，Hsün Tzu also said：
The sacrificial rite is the expression of man's affectionate longing. It represents the height of piety and faithfulness，of love and respect. It represents also the completion of propriety and refinement. Its meaning cannot be understood except by the sages. The sages understand its meaning. The superior men enjoy its practice. It becomes the routine of the officer. It becomes the custom of the people. The superior men consider it as the activity of man，while the ordinary people consider it as something to do with the spirit. ... It is to render the same service to the dead as that to the living，to render the same service to the lost as that to the existing. What it serves has neither a shape nor even a shadow，yet it is the completion of refinement.(9)
Because we are longing for and revering the dead，we have to express our longing and reverence. The rite of sacrifice gives such an expression. “What it serves has neither a shape nor even a shadow，yet it is the completion of refinement.”So it is poetic and not religious.
Besides the sacrifice offered to our ancestors，there are other kinds of sacrifice. These the Confucianists interpreted from the same point of view. In Hsün Tzu's “Treatise on Nature，”one passage reads：
“Why is it that it rains when people offer sacrifice for rain？”Hsün Tzu said：“There is one special reason for that. It is the same as it rains without praying for it. When there is eclipse of the sun or the moon，we make demonstrations to save them. When the rain is deficient，we pray for it. When there are important affairs，we divine before we reach any decision. We do these not because from them we can get what we want. They are simply a sort of decorum. The superior men consider these practices as a sort of decorum，while the ordinary people consider them as having supernatural force. One would be happy if one considers them as a sort of decorum；one would be not，if one considers them as having supernatural force.”(10)
We pray for rain，because we want to express our feeling of anxiety. We divine before we make any important decisions，because we want to show our extreme prudence. That is all. If we take prayer as really being able to move the gods or divination as really being able to foretell，we are superstitious and will take the natural results of superstition.
In sacrifice there is also an expression of our gratitude to those to whom we“owe our being.”In his “Treatise on Rites，”Hsün Tzu said：
There are three origins that rites take into consideration. Heaven and earth are the origin of life. Our ancestors are the origin of our group. Our sovereign and our teachers are the origin of peace. If there were no heaven and earth，whence comes life？If our ancestors did not exist，whence comes our group？If there were no sovereign and no teachers，whence comes peace？If there were not these three origins，there would be no man living in peace. Therefore，in the rites we serve heaven above and earth below；we respect our ancestors and revere our sovereign and teachers. These are the three origins that rites take into consideration.(11)
From this idea we offer sacrifice to anything to which we owe something. In these sacrifices，“the highest sentiments of benevolence and righteousness were expressed，”as said in one passage in the Li Chi.(12) From the same idea we also offer sacrifices to the benefactors of society. One passage in the Li Chi reads：
According to the institutes of the sage-kings about sacrifice，sacrifice should be offered to him who had given laws to the people；to him who had laboured to death in the discharge of his duties；to him who had strengthened the state by his labourious toil；to him who had boldly and successfully met great calamities；and to him who had warded off great evils.(13)
We owe something to the heroes and benefactors of our society，and therefore we should worship and offer sacrifice to them. What Auguste Comte called the“Religion of Humanity”seems to have this idea. In Chinese society every craft has its own god that is assumed to be the inventor or the symbol or the representative of the inventors of this craft. In these kinds of worship as they are，there are not without superstition and mythology. But according to the Confucianist theory，in them there are only poetry and ethics. If they are to be called religion，they are the“Religion of Humanity.”
According to the Confucianists，the practice of mourning and sacrificial rites is also a sort of education to the people. As Tseng Tzu，a disciple of Confucius，said：
Let there be a careful attention to perform the mourning rites to parents，and let there be followed when long gone with the rites of sacrifice;— then the virtue of the people will resume its proper excellence.(14)
If we can treat the dead with much love and respect，we cannot treat the living with less. In a society if there is only mutual love，but no mutual hatred，the society will certainly be in peace.
（III）
Such is the Confucianist theory of mourning and sacrificial rites. There is another point，which is the implication of the above theory，though about it the Confucianists made no clear statement.
From the above discussion，we know that the Confucianists，at least a part of them，did not think that after our death we have souls still existing. But no matter whether we have souls or not，that death is not necessarily an end of life is evident. Our children and grand children are part of our body，that continue to exist after our death. In this sense，so far as our posterity continues to exist，we are so far immortal. This is true to all living beings，and is simply a truism. This kind of immortality can be called biological immortality.
Besides this there is another consideration. If one once lived，that there has been one man living in a certain time at a certain place is an established fact in the universe，which nobody can change. Even God does not seem to be able to change the past，if there is God. In this sense everyone who has been once born into the world is immortal. An ordinary contemporary of Confucius was just as immortal as Confucius. The difference between them is simply that Confucius is known while his poor contemporary is not. The case is the same as that we now all exist，but among us some are great men and some are insignificant people；the former are well known while the latter are not. But even if there is one who is not known by anybody，we cannot on this account deny his existence. In this sense，therefore，everyone who has once lived cannot but be immortal. But this kind of immortality is different from the biological one，and can be called ideal immortality.
But ideal immortality as such is not considered as valuable by most people. Most people are not satisfied with the fact that they have lived，but only with that that people know they have lived. They must have something in order to be known by later generations. But the something of such kind cannot be achieved by everyone. The majority of mankind consists of ordinary people that simply cannot have such achievements. They can only make themselves known to their own families. With the emphasis of mourning and sacrificial rites，every man lives in the memory of his descendants and will thus be ideally immortal，if only he is competent in his biological function to produce children. This is the implication of the Confucianistic theory of mourning and sacrificial rites.
This implication can be seen also in the Confucianist theory of wedding rite. The Confucianist conception of marriage is biological. According to the Confucianists，the importance of marriage consists in its biological function. Thus one passage in the Li Chi reads：
The wedding rite is intended to unite the relationship of two families，with a view to secure retrospectively the services in the ancestral temple，and prospectively the continuance of the family line.(15)
Another passage reads：
There is no congratulation on marriage，because it indicates that one generation will succeed another.(16)
The biological function of marriage is the production of children. We marry and thus produce new ego to replace the old. From the point of view of biology，the purpose of the union of the two sexes is the production of the young. The pleasure and affection accompanied with the union are a sort of psychological by-product and thus of no importance. The Confucianist conception of marriage is biological，therefore，the Confucianists did not consider love as anessential factor in marriage. Marriage is not to be congratulated，because from this point of view，marriage is as pathetic as digging graves；the very fact proves that we are mortals after all.
We are mortals，but we are afraid of death and longing for immortality. Religion teaches the immortality of soul and thus tries to remove our fear and to satisfy our longing. But this teaching cannot be proved on rational ground. The Confucianists，at least a part of them，did not teach the immortality of soul，but emphasized the way through which we can have biological and ideal immortality. Most country people in China，in their old age，when their sons married and their grandsons come，when they think there is no danger for the continuance of the life of their ancestors and of themselves，will wait for death with every satisfaction，and never care whether they have souls or not，or whether their souls are immortal or not. Their spirit is really Confucianist.
Reprinted from The Chinese Social and Political Science Review，15-3，1931.
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(1) Analects of Confucius，Book VII.
(2) Analects of Confucius，Chap.XLVIII.
(3) Legge's translation，in the Sacred Books of the East series，Vol.XXVII，P.148.
(4) Id.，pp.172-173.
(5) Sacred Books of the East series，pp.167-169，with modifications.
(6) Hsün-tzu，Chap.19.
(7) Legge's translation，in the Sacred Books of the East series，Vol.XXVIII，P.379.
(8) Sacred Books of the East series，p.236.
(9) Hsün-tzu，Chap.19.
(10) Hsün Tzu，Chap.17.
(11) Hsün Tzu，Chap.19.
(12) Legge's translation，in the Sacred Books of the East series，Vol.XXVII，p.432.
(13) Id.，Vol.XXVIII，pp.207-208.
(14) Analects of Confucius，Book I.
(15) Legge's translation，in the Sacred Books of the East series，Vol.XXVIII，p.428.
(16) Id.，Vol.XXVII，p.442.